Pre-Implantation Genetic Diagnosis Essay - 2142 Words

Pre-Implantation Genetic Diagnosis Please make sure that our little one has blond hair and blue eyes, and I want him to be a good athlete and very intellectual. Oh, and doc, make him disease free please. Is that all? You two aren’t very particular are you? This will be an easy case. We will continue with the implantation in two days. With the enormous advancement of Technology in many areas of Genetic Diagnosis, parents and doctors seem to defy Mother Nature and maybe even God every day. An example of this phenomenon is Pre-Implantation Genetic Diagnosis. Do the advantages this technology brings outweigh the disadvantages? Who should be final authority? Will the advancement of†¦show more content†¦The procedure is repeated for each blastomere and the disorder-free cells are returned to the blastocyst for further incubation and later implanted into the mother.3 Micromanipulation mimics the purpose of other genetic diagnosis approaches like amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling.5,4 In these procedures a sample of the amniotic fluid and/or the placenta are taken during pregnancy for genetic diagnosis. If signs of genetic abnormality exist, pregnancy might be and usually is terminated. What types of genetic abnormalities can PID screen for? First of all, only high-risk cases are tested, meaning either one (25 percent risk) or both parents (50 percent risk) is/are known carriers or persons with the disease. Furthermore, conditions must be pre-confirmed and studied before the procedure can be done because there is such a little amount of sample (cells) test. Therefore, there is a limitation on the capability of the procedure to effectively weed out genetic irregularity.3 The following genetic disorders may now be prevented using the PID method: Alzheimer disease (AAP) Cystic Fibrosis Fanconi Anemia Hemophilia Muscular Dystrophy Neurofibromatosis Type I p 53 Cancers Sickle Cell disease Spinal Muscular trophy Tay Sachs Disease Exactly how successful is the PID technique? The first PID baby was born in London in 1989.5 However, in the United States the PID technique is virtually infantile. OnlyShow MoreRelatedVitro And Pre Implantation Genetic Diagnosis2610 Words   |  11 Pagesand pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) can both be used when there is difficulty for a couple to naturally conceive on their own. IVF is defined as a series of procedures used to treat fertility or genetic problems and assist with the conception of a child. During IVF, mature eggs are collected from your ovaries and fertilized by sperm in a lab. IVF is the most effective assisted form of reproduction. PGD is defined as the testing of pre-implantation stage embryos or oocytes for genetic defectsRead MoreArgumentative +/- Pre-Implantation Genetic Diagnosis1001 Words   |  5 Pagesthat you re having trouble conceiving because of a genetic abnormality you never even knew you had. Your mind races and your heart sinks. How is this possible? You never thought you would have to deal with not being able to have a baby one day. There are several options you have to try and conceive without passing on the genetic abnormalityÂ… the doctor continues to explain, but the one I would recommend first is Pre Implantation Genetic Diagnosis. You and your wife finally decide on PGD, a typeRead MoreEmbryos : Pre-Implantation Genetic Diagnosis?1121 Words   |  5 PagesWhat PGD is: Pre-Implantation Genetic Diagnosis is a procedure used before implantation to identify genetic defects within embryos. It is used to prevent certain genetic diseases or disorders from being passed on to the child by detecting irregularities in the number or structure of embryo chromosomes. The embryos used in the process are generally created through in vitro fertilisation and PGD is used with an IVF cycle to increase the potential for a successful pregnancy and delivery. PGD refersRead MorePgd : Pre Implantation Genetic Diagnosis2264 Wo rds   |  10 PagesPGD – Pre-implantation Genetic Diagnosis. IVF is known as in vitro fertilisation. This procedure is done by removing an egg from a female, and a sperm cell from the male and combining the egg and sperm in a test tube. These two then form together and create a zygote, which then begins separating into and forming an embryo . Pre-implantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD). It is known as the pre testing of pre-implanted embryos for genetic disorders. 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PGD is used after two failed cycles of IVF, in which the egg and the spermRead MoreA Short Note On Pre Implantation Genetic Diagnosis1304 Words   |  6 PagesERT – PRE-IMPLANTATION GENETIC DIAGNOSIS Cystic Fibrosis: Pre-implantation Genetic Diagnosis (or PGD as it is more commonly called) is majorly used to test for 2 things; specifically known genetic conditions, and chromosomal abnormality. Ultimately it allows only normal cells, which are cells unaffected by the disorder it is testing for, to be selected and used for the IVF process. PGD is popularly used as it maximizes the chance of having a healthy baby which is a big health concern of potentialRead MoreUse Of Ivf And Pre Implantation Genetic Diagnosis ( Pgd )1652 Words   |  7 PagesThe use of IVF and Pre-Implantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD) 1. Pre-Implantation Genetic Diagnosis, or PGD, is a procedure that people can go through to avoid passing down inheritable conditions that can have dangerous long-term effects on their children. It involves screening the mother’s embryos by In-vitro Fertilisation (IVF) for mutations, and selecting healthy embryos for further treatment. This can ‘increase the chance of a genetically normal pregnancy and the chance of having a healthy babyRead MorePgd Is Known As Pre Implantation Genetic Diagnosis2465 Words   |  10 PagesPGD is known as pre-implantation genetic diagnosis. â€Å"It is a procedure involving the removal of one or two cells from an embryo and subsequent genetic testing of these cells for specific genetic conditions or chromosomal disorders. PGD involves having an IVF treatment. During the IVF cycle, one or more cells are removed from each embryo in a procedure called embryo biopsy, which typically happens on day 3 or 5 after egg collection. The biopsied ce lls are the transported to a genetic testing laboratory

The Emergency Department Of A County Hospital - 1083 Words

A sedated 72-year old male was admitted to the emergency department of a county hospital. The patient was complaining of chest pain and shortness of breath. This patient has a history of COPD, type-two diabetes and has quit smoking for nearly seven years. In the emergency department, the patient had labored breathing and a SpO2 of 72% on room air. This patient was then placed on BiPAP. His weight is 117kg and temperature of 99.1. Blood pressure was 61/41 on arrival to the emergency department and the patient was tachycardic with a heart rate of 145bpm. An EKG showed the patient was in atrial fibrillation with rapid ventricular response. IV fluids were given in the right antecubital and norepinephrine was administered. While the patient was on BiPAP with 100% FiO2, he had a SpO2 reading of 80%. The doctor decided to intubate the patient with an oral endotracheal tube size nine. Prior to the procedure the patient was sedated with fentanyl. The patient was put on PRVC with 100% FiO2. 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Silence Is Face Saved or Lost †an Cultural Study of Politeness Free Essays

Abstract The present paper focuses on silence; it is mainly dedicated to theory exploration. It firstly reviews major views of the notion of silence, namely its various norms and functions. Then it illustrates silence with examples as a polite means during conversations. We will write a custom essay sample on Silence: Is Face Saved or Lost – an Cultural Study of Politeness or any similar topic only for you Order Now Finally it summarizes that silence, as a nonverbal language, bears as many functions as speech, and sometimes it may bring about special results. Introduction When communication comes into question, in its broadest sense, two aspects catch most researchers’ eyes—speech and silence. Speech is a quite familiar subject, as when referred, communication is often specified on speech, while silence is more often than not a phenomenon which is out of awareness. As regards its strategies, communication can roughly fall into two parts—directness and indirectness, that is, the speaker can express something directly or indirectly. And to communicate successfully, we depend on both of the strategies and both of the tools, i. e. speech and silence. 2. Silence and Politeness 1. The Notion of Silence Silence has traditionally been regarded as delimiting the beginning and end of utterances, or taken simply for inaction in communicative settings, or as most researchers have defined, treated as merely background. As a matter of fact, silence plays a central importance in communicative settings. The appropriate understanding of the notion of silence can be achieved by the understanding of its various forms and functions. 2. 1. 1 Its Various Forms Silence takes various forms. The smallest unit of silence is the normally unnoticed cessation of sound in the production of consonants, which creates the pattern of consonants and vowels that makes â€Å"speech† of a vocal stream. Pausing follows and sometimes is perceived as hesitation and sometimes not perceived at all, within the stream of speech making up a speaker’s turn, and between speaker turns. The next level of silence includes pauses that are perceived in interaction such as lulls in conversation. Longer than this is the complete silence of one party to a conversation. The broadest level of silence is that which provides the structure and background against which talk is marked and meaningful merely by virtue of its occurrence. (Tannen and Saville-Troike, 1985). 2. 1. 2 Its Functions Owing to varying levels, silence bears a range of functions. At one pole are the functions of pausing in cognitive processes, impression formation, and as part of communicative style partly responsible for cultural stereotyping. At the other pole are the functions of silence as the background against which talk has meaning, or as the nonverbal activity which structures interaction. This article mainly focus on silence itself as a communicative device in interaction; either obstructer or facilitator of divine inspiration, and a means of emotion management and display. Many researchers have discussed certain functions of silence: Bruneau (1973) has dealt with â€Å"interactive silences†, which include a broad array of functions, from defining the role of auditor in a communicative exchange, to providing social control, to demonstrating difference, to indicating emotional closeness, to managing personal interaction; Jensen (1973) has also categorizing its various functions as linkage, affection, revelation, judgment, and activation. 2. Silence and Politeness Silence, to some extent, is the extreme manifestation of indirectness. If indirectness is a matter of saying one thing and meaning another, silence can be a matter of saying nothing and meaning something. 1. Face-Saving View and Politeness In communication, people often mind their face, or to say, maintain their personal image. In their face-saving view, Brown and Levinson (1978) categorize face into â€Å"positive face† and â€Å"negative face†, define negative face (NF) as â€Å"basic claim to territories, personal preserves, rights to non-distraction—i. e. freedom of action and freedom from imposition†. Positive face (PF) refers to â€Å"the positive self-image that people have and want to be appreciated and approved of by at least some people†. The two complementary sides of face have been referred to as â€Å"distance vs. involvement†, â€Å"deference vs. solidarity†, and â€Å"autonomy vs. connectional face†. Politeness is activity serving to enhance, maintain or protect face. It consists in people’s rational interaction, preserving both sides of face for each other in intrinsically face-threatening acts (FTAs) by exercising various strategies. 2. Silence as a Polite Means As the extreme manifestation of indirectness, silence has two conflicting yet simultaneous views of silence: one positive, and one negative. The positive and negative valuation of silence is a facet of the inherent ambiguity of silence as a symbol. The ambiguity of silence can be seen to arise either from what is assumed to be evidenced or from what is assumed to be omitted. So silence is probably the most ambiguous of all linguistic forms. 2. 2. 2. 1 The Role in Communication Silence does both good and bad in communication. On the one hand, it is useful when one wants to be indirect or to be polite by leaving options. Silence gives the hearer time to think of a response to what has been said before, and it can be used as a conflict—avoidance strategy. It is easier to undo silence than it is to undo words. For example: A: We’ve received word that four Tanzanian acquaintances from out of town will be arriving tomorrow. But, with our large family, we have no room to accommodate them. (Implied request: â€Å"Would you help us out? ) B: [Silence; not accompanied by any distinctive gesture or facial expression] (Denial: â€Å"I don’t want to† or â€Å"I don’t have any room either†) A: What do you think? B: Yes, that is a problem. Were you able to finish that report we were working on this morning? The negative response in the cultural milieu in which this took place violated A’s expectation that guests would be welcomed, and frustrated his goal in initiating the conversation (Tannen and Saville-Troike, 1985). Another example follows: A: Please marry me. B: [Silence; head and eyes lowered] (Acceptance) The exchange occurred between Japanese speakers. For the girl (B) to say anything would have been considered very inappropriate in this very emotional situation (Tannen and Saville-Troike, 1985). If it had occurred between Igbo speakers, silence would be interpreted as denial if she continued to stand there and as acceptance if she ran away. A: Are you still mad at me? B: [Silence] (Affirmative) It is noteworthy that the silence here conveys a message precisely because it forms part of an interactional communicative structure. It does not deny or terminate the interaction which would require some other act, and so cooperatively invites interpretation. In each of these exchanges, speaker B selected silence from the possible repertoire of response forms available to convey his or her intended meaning. In a word, silence can be the positive means to prevent from employing some determinate expression, considering the place of silence in relation to other communicative structures. On the other hand, one’s failure to say something that is expected in a given moment by the other party can be interpreted as a sign of hostility or dumbness. . 2. 2. 2 Silence, Face-Saving View and Politeness Silence is seen as positive when taken as evidence of the existence of something positive underlying—for example, proper respect; the silence of the telephone when it represents solitude for creative work; the silence of, as the phrase expresses, â€Å"sweet silent thought†; and the silence of perfect rapport between intimates who do not have to exchange words. But silence is also seen as positive if assumed to represent the omission of something negative—â€Å"If you can’t say something nice, don’t say anything†. Silence becomes a bad thing if it seems to represent the existence of something negative—the silence of seething anger. But it is also negatively valued if it is assumed to represent the omission of something positive—the silence of the telephone when you are anxiously awaiting a particular telephone call; the omission of a greeting which constitutes being snubbed; inaction because appropriate action is not being taken. Hence, silence can be valued to have two benefits in rapport and defensiveness (Tannen and Saville-Troike, 1985). The rapport benefit comes from being understood without putting one’s meaning on record, so that understanding is seen not as the result of putting meaning into words—which presumably could be achieved with any two people who speak the same language—but rather as the greater understanding of shared perspective, experience and intimacy, the deeper sense of speaking the same language. This is the positive value of silence stemming from the existence of something positive underlying. The defensive value of silence comes from omitting to say something negative—not confronting potentially divisive information, or being able later to deny having meant what may not be received well. These two benefits can also be interpreted as connection and independence, the two overriding goals of human communication. The two goals can be referred to as the needs for deference or distance on the one hand and camaraderie on the other; or as positive face—the need to be approved of by others, and negative face—the need not to be imposed on by others. Ways of serving these needs, then, are positive and negative politeness. As is known, negative and positive politeness results from the paradoxical nature of interpersonal rapport. Connection is to be sought, because people need to be involved with others. But it is also to be avoided, as a threat to the integrity of the individual. The two benefits of silence determine that silence has a positive value as a way of serving negative politeness—not imposing on others. But silence can also have a negative value when it is seen as the failure of positive politeness—the need to be involved with others. Nonetheless silence can be seen as positive or negative by members of any culture, as it is measured against what is expected in that context. Then it may be interpreted as the observance of positive face or the observance of negative face. 3. Summary When speech is interpreted, it is not merely accounting for what can be said, but what can be said when, where, by whom, to whom, in what manner, and in what particular circumstances. It follows naturally that this line of inquiry must consider also who may not speak about what and in what situations, as well. Silence, as a nonverbal language, bears as many functions as speech, and sometimes it may bring about special results. It is not as simple as most people think. In different contexts, it can be interpreted as different meanings. Pragmatically speaking, this paper simply touches the notion of silence, and relates it with face-saving view and politeness. Silence may convey many underlying meanings in communicative settings. People resort to silence from the possible repertoire of response forms available to convey his or her intended meaning in order not to threaten others’ face for polite reason. How to cite Silence: Is Face Saved or Lost – an Cultural Study of Politeness, Papers

How To Write The Title Of A Short Story In An Essay Example For Students

How To Write The Title Of A Short Story In An Essay It was one of those nights that the sky was clear and the stars were visible. I had just defeated the stress of finals and was now ready to be back in action; the late night activity of the San Francisco underground scene was calling my name. It is where a person could go and walk down one street and probably visit at least 30 clubs by doing this. There was a particular flavor I was in search of this night, something that could make me exert my body to its fullest extent. I needed to go and release some stress by dancing at a club, I needed to let loose. When my friends Mike, Christina and I arrived in San Francisco our first destination was the Cat Club. It was a seedy little place hosted the break beat and jungle music. It wasnt much to look at it, with its dark entrance and several vagrants sleeping in the street near the entrance. A different crowd hung out there. It was a mixture of old dance party burnouts and very young ambitious club-goers. I felt confident though, I was going to go in there and knock the crowds socks off. I was in my best fits (outfit); I was wearing my black old school Adidas running suit with white stripes, and a black Kangol hat. The Adidas Superstar shoes that I was wearing had my white fat laces in them, to add a little flavor, but the shoes themselves looked almost war torn; they were scared from many other late nights. As the line moved forward closer to the entrance of the club, I could feel the pulsating vibes of the music like a gust of wind every time the door was opened to allow other patrons int o the club. It sounded wild in there, I was outside and I wanted to be in there so bad. Just the sound of the music and feeling of the vibration was making me more anxious then ever. I felt like a little kid waiting for Christmas.I needed to be inside, on the dance floor, just it and me. I was going to dance tonight. Suddenly, the line had stopped. What was going on? This couldnt be happening I needed to be inside; I needed to feel weightless and sweaty from some fast paced break dancing. My legs were jittery with anticipation. I felt like I was going to go mad. Mike being as pushy as he usually is walked up to the bouncer and in his English accent said to him, Oie, whats the hold up, why are we still standing outside freezing our bullocks off The bouncer looked at him with amazement that someone would actually approach him that way. I heard him say very humbly, that the bathroom had been backed up so they needed to clean the overflow and it would be about 33 minutes; he said that t hey didnt want to let anymore people in so it wouldnt intensify the mess. It was understandable, but I was now at the edge. Mike walked back and looked over he knew without saying anything that I had heard what the bouncer said. Not a word was said for about 5 minutes until Christina began whining, I am so bored waiting in line just is not fun! My clothes are too expensive to just be standing here in the street!!!! As pretty as I am she be the first one in, god damn it!!!! She was a bit self-centered. She loved to play the displaced glamour queen. I didnt pay much attention to her; I just needed to dance! At this point it felt as though all of the stress that had built up from school was coming back tenfold. I hated waiting in line at clubs it was the worst thing to do. Usually you would know someone at the club and they would put you on the list or the line moved pretty quick. I felt like a social reject waiting in line with people that I had never noticed in any club before. I sat here and wondered where the hell were most of theses people when I

Selling England By The PoundClassic Reviews by Genesis free essay sample

Genesis is a band that likes to play progressive rock and have some Avant Garde ish music mixed in as well. But unlike many other prog bands of its time, at least in terms of vocals, there were two eras of this band. The Peter Gabriel side(the side were in right now) and the Phil Collins side. But, since this is the 70s were talking about Peter Gabriel`s Genesis. Selling England By The Pound was released in 1973 and is widely considered to be by fans as the best album. While so far I havent checked their other albums, I can surely say this is awesome. Why? Well take a listen after this review and you might know. 53 minutes is all they really need. Eight tracks isnt much but if you did have a couple ten minute+ songs, you can easily make it much long. We will write a custom essay sample on Selling England By The Pound:Classic Reviews by Genesis or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This album is setup with a normal song/transition style. Except this time the transitions are three to four minutes minutes. With tracks such as Firth The Fifth, The Battle of The Ebbing Map and the grande finale of this great album here. The final its self is about 13 minutes with The Cinema Show lasting for most of it and likes to build as the song goes on. Then the Ailes of Plenty comes,on with a soothing piano chord at the end for the 90 seconds or so. Very, very epic. I give this album a 10/10. I am the Grim Reaper, signing off.

The Declaration from Birmingha essays

The Declaration from Birmingha essays Although the time periods and over all reasons were different, Thomas Jefferson and Martin Luther King Jr. kept one common goal in mind, freedom from their oppressors. The Declaration of Independence and Letter from Birmingham Jail are great examples of how Americans were able to stand up against corrupt ways and break free from the chains of injustice. Even though these two documents seem nothing alike at a quick glance, one is able to note that they are almost exactly the same when you inspect the goals, style, and logic upheld in both documents. Both Thomas Jefferson and Martin Luther King Jr. had one common goal in mind when they put pen to the paper and inscribed their names into history forever; both men were leaders of an alliance of people who had been treated unjust for many years and demanded a resolution, both men were fighting against a long train of abuses with brutal injustice and shameful humiliation, and some people might even consider the fact that both Thomas Jefferson and Martin Luther King Jr. committed treason. ( Martin Luther King Jr., in a sense, struck up an ethical war against the American people.) Basically, the only difference between them was the people they were fighting for. Thomas Jefferson was fighting for the American people in order to free us from the tyranny of Britain, and Martin Luther King Jr. was fighting for African Americans in order to free them from a blanket of racism. Style was a major factor in setting up the documents and presenting a plethora of information to the people. Jefferson and King kept the same strategy at hand when they went about writing their documents. They made sure to cover the entire spectrum and holster emotional, ethical, and logical appeal in order to leave no space for forgiveness of the oppressor. Emotional appeal was able to dig its way into the hearts of people and cause them to feel sorry for the oppressed. Ethica...

Business ethics and what does business ethics has to do with human Speech or Presentation

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Business - Personal Statement Example Controlling my emotions at the time was very difficult as losing that job was the first major problem I had encountered and it affected my self-esteem. I felt angry and frustrated, resulting in a lot of stress that really affected my relationship with my partner and closest friends. I was unable to control my anger and would often let it out on my friends, with some distancing themselves from me because of my negative attitude and bad temper. Several resources played an important role in helping me cope with the various issues that arose at the time. The first very important resource was prayer that really helped me to focus on my future options and forget the past negative experience. It also helped me cope with my feelings of anger, and anxiety as well as the various frustrations I experienced during that period I stayed jobless. Going in hand with prayer was my acceptance of the situation I was in at the time as this helped me to understand the position I was in and to identify the various steps I would undertake in order to get a new job. The second major resource was my mentor who helped me to understand that I was going through a normal phase of life that other successful people that I admire have passed through and were able to rise despite that hurdle in life. Mentorship is a very successful way of addressing and coping with change (Krayer and Lee, 78). My mentor was also very helpful in assisting me to find a ne w job by linking me with new resource people and organizations. The third major resource was my family and friends who provided me with an encouraging environment during the period I was unemployed. My family offered both financial and emotional support that was very important to me at the time. Despite my negative attitude towards them, they were able to share with me their own experiences after they lost jobs and the various steps they undertook to cope with the loss as well as some of the necessary

Brand Audit Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Brand Audit - Research Paper Example However, with appropriate brand audit the particular brand will get more strength to retain its strong brand image within the market. Introduction: There are many cases in the industry where the business got badly affected for the major brand failures and for these factors the main reason would be the lack of initiative in brand audit process. Target is a brand which is into the retailing. It has to be remembered that a retail store sales products which are of different brands. Target retail is a chain which is selling multi branded products in their stores. In this case many brands are associated under one name and that is the reason auditing of the main brand Target is an important factor to be taken seriously to measure the ultimate output in a quantitative manner. Brand audit and background analysis of the Brand Target: The brand is the name, logo or some marks associated with the product which distinguishes the product from the other identical products (Clifton, Simmons, and Ahm ad 2009, 23). According to Martin Jelsema 1 the six major factors for the brand evaluations are brand matrices, brand positioning, market segmentations, internal strength of the brand, brand personality and differentiators which differentiate the brand from the other competing brands. The brand audit is basically the valuation of the brad in a quantitative manner. ... As an example brand equity can be stated as the strong mental association within the consumers related to the specific brand. It also can be associated with the aggregate value of the brand in the customers’ mind (Majumdar, 2009, 3). Customers are the assets of the companies and the brand identity and the brand equity relates closely towards the customer equity. The brand Target has a great brand value among the customers of Australia. There are some factors which are closely related to the evaluation of the brand Target and they are, value equity, relationship equity and the brand equity. The customer centric approach of the retail brand Target is the key of the success. The Brand Target was founded in early 1925 and from that time it is growing with a great pace and in the present time the brand operates as a subsidiary of the company named Coles Group Limited (Target Australia private Ltd.). The company has a great existence in the market as the brand name of Target and it has also created great brand equity in the country side of the Australia with the brand name of Target Country Stores. However, the mother brand Target is having more than 290 stores in all over Australia (History in the making: Target). The Target Australia Private Ltd has shown a great endeavor towards building the brand and more importantly it has got a sustainable market capitalization within the Australian consumers for many years. Brand Culture: The brand culture is a structural function which creates the identity of the brand for a long term within the organization. The proper culture shows the ultimate path for the improvement. The brand culture has got a great significance in the industry for the last few decades

The Indo-china War: An Overview

The Indo-china War: An Overview The Indo-China War, also known as the Sino-Indian Border Conflict, was a war between China and india that occurred in 1962. A disputed Himalayan border was the main pretext for war, but other issues played a role. There had been a series of violent border incidents after the 1959 tibetan uprising, when India had granted asylum to thedalai lama. Under a Forward Policy, India placed outposts along the border, including several north of the MacMahon Line, the eastern portion of a Line of actual Control proclaimed by Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai in 1959. The Chinese launched simultaneous offensives in ladakh and across the McMahon Line on 20 October 1962, coinciding with the Cuban missile crises. Chinese troops advanced over Indian forces in both theaters, capturing rezang la in chushul in the western theater, as well as tawang in the eastern theater. The war ended when the Chinese declared aceasefire on 20 November 1962, and later withdrew from the disputed area. The Sino-Indian War is notable for the harsh conditions under which much of the fighting took place, entailling large-scale combat at altitudes of over 4,250 metres (14,000 feet). This presented enormous logistics problems for both sides. The Sino-Indian War was also noted for the non-deployment of navy or air force by either the Chinese and Indian sides. Location China and India share a long border, sectioned into three stretches by Nepal and Bhutan, which follows the Himalaya mountains between Burma and what was then West pakistan. A number of disputed regions lie along this border. At its western end is the Aksai chin region, an area the size of Switzerland, that sits between the Chinese autonomous region of Xingjiang, and Tibet (which China declared as autonomous regions in 1965). The eastern border, between Burma and Bhutan, comprises the present Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh (formerly the North East Frontier agency). Both of these regions were overrun by China in the 1962 conflict. Most combat took place at high altitudes. The Aksai chin region is a vast desert of salt flats around 5,000 metres above sea level, and Arunachal Pradesh is extremely mountainous with a number of peaks exceeding 7000 metres. According to military doctrine, to be successful an attacker generally requires a 3:1 ratio of numerical superiority over the defender; inmoutain warfare this ratio should be considerably higher as the terrain favours defense.China was able to take advantage of this: the Chinese Army had possession of the highest ridges in the regions. The high altitude and freezing conditions also cause logistical and welfare difficulties; in past similar conflicts (such as the Italian Campaign of World war I) more casualties have been caused by the harsh conditions than enemy action. The Sino-Indian War was no different, with many troops on both sides dying in the freezing cold. Background Pre-Simla British map published in 1909 shows the so called Outer Line as Indias northern boundary.The cause of the war was a dispute over the sovereignty of the widely-separated Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh border regions. Aksai Chin, claimed by India to belong to kashmir and by China to be part of Xinjiang, contains an important road link that connects the Chinese regions of Tibet and Xinjiang. Chinas construction of this road was one of the triggers of the conflict. Arunachal Pradesh (called South Tibet by China) is also claimed by both nations—although it is roughly the size of Austria, it is sparsely inhabited (by numerous local tribes) due to its mountainous terrain .The Indian state Arunachal Pradesh has a population of over one million as of today. The Johnson Line The western portion of the Sino-Indian boundary originates in 1834, with the Sikh Confederations conquest of ladakh. In 1842 the Sikh Confederacy, which at the time ruled over much of Northen India (including the frontier regions of jammu and Kashmir), signed a treaty which guaranteed the integrity of its existing borders with its neighbours. The British defeat of the Sikhs in 1846 resulted in transfer of sovereignty over ladakh, part of the Jammu and Kashmir region, to the British, and British commissioners contacted Chinese officials to negotiate the border. The boundaries at its two extremities, Pangong lake and Karakoram Pass, were well-defined, but the Aksai Chin area in between lay undefined. In 1865, British surveyor W H Johnson came to an agreement with the Maharaja of Kashmir, in whose service he was employed, on a proposed Johnson Line which placed Aksai Chin in Kashmir. China rejected the arrangement, and the British government also harboured doubts, so decided to take up the issue in an attempt to reach a settlement. However in 1892, before the issue had been resolved, China erected boundary markers at Karakoram Pass on the ancient caravan route between Xinjiang and Ladakh (which were disputed by the British Indian Government). Throughout most of the 19th century Great Britain and the expanding Russian Empire were jockeying for influence in Central asia, and Britain decided to hand over Aksai Chin to Chinese administration as a buffer against Russian invasion. The newly-created border was known as the MacCartney-MacDonald Line, and both British-controlled India and China now began to show Aksai Chin as Chinese. In 1911 the xinhai revolution resulted in power shifts in China, and by 1918 (in the wake of the Russian Bolshevik revolution) the British no longer saw merit in Chinas continuing possession of the region. On British maps the border was redrawn as the original Johnson Line, but despite this reversion the new border was left unmanned and undemarcated. According to Neville maxwell, the British had used as many as 11 different boundary lines in the region, as their claims shifted with the political situation. By the time of Indian independence in 1947, the Johnson Line had become Indias official western boundary. On 1 July 1954, Indian Prime Minister Jawahar Lal Nehru definitively stated the Indian position. He claimed that Aksai Chin had been part of the Indian ladakh region for centuries, and that the border (as defined by the Johnson Line) was non-negotiable. According to George N. Patterson, when the Indian government finally produced a report detailing the alleged proof of Indias claims to the disputed area, the quality of the Indian evidence was very poor, including some very dubious sources indeed. During the 1950s, China constructed a road through Aksai Chin, connecting Xinjiang and Tibet, which ran south of the Johnson Line in many places. Aksai Chin was easily accessible to the Chinese, but access from India, which meant negotiating the Karakoram moutains, was more problematic. Consequently India did not even learn of the existence of the road until 1957 — finally confirmed when the road was shown in Chinese maps published the following year. The McMahon Line In 1826 India and China gained a common border, including the area of what is now called Myanmar, following British annexations in the Anglo Burmes Wars. In 1847, Major J. Jenkins, Agent for the North East Frontier, reported that the Tawang was part of Tibet. In 1872, four monastic officials from Tibet arrived in Tawang and supervised a boundary settlement with Major R. Graham, NEFA official, which included the Tawang Tract as part of Tibet. Thus, in the last half of the 19th century, it was clear that the British treated the Tawang Tract as part of Tibet. This boundary was confirmed in a June 1, 1912 note from the British General Staff in India, stating that the present boundary (demarcated) is south of Tawang, running westwards along the foothills from near Ugalguri to the southern Bhutanese border. A 1908 map of The Province of Eastern Bengal and Assam (32 miles to the inch), prepared for the Foreign Department of the Government of India, showed the international boundary from Bhu tan continuing to the Baroi River, following the Himalayas foothill alignment. In 1913, representatives of Great Britain, China and Tibet attended a conference in simla regarding the borders between Tibet, China and British India. Whilst all three representatives initialed the agreement, Beijing later objected to the proposed boundary between the regions of Outer Tibet and Inner Tibet and did not ratify it. The details of the Indo-Tibetan boundary was not revealed to China at the time. The foreign secretary of the British Indian government, Henry McMahon, who drew up the proposal, decided to bypass the Chinese (although instructed not to by his superiors) and settle the border bilaterally by negotiating directly with Tibet. According to later Indian claims, this border was intended to run through the highest ridges of the Himalayas, as the areas south of the Himalayas were traditionally Indian. However, the McMahon Line lay south of the boundary India claims. Indias government held the view that the Himalayas were the ancient boundaries of the Indian Subcontinent, and thus should be the modern boundaries of India. while it is the position of the Chinese government that the disputed area in the Himalayas have been geographically and culturally part of Tibet since ancient times. Months after the simla Agreement, China set up boundary markers south of the McMahon Line. TOCallaghan, an official in the Eastern Sector of the on North east frontier, relocated all these markers to a location slightly south of the McMahon Line, and then visited Rima to confirm with Tibetan officials that there was no Chinese influence in the area. The British-run Government of India initially rejected the Simla Agreement as incompatible with the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907, which stipulated that neither party was to negotiate with Tibet except through the intermediary of the Chinese government. The British and Russians cancelled the 1907 agreement by joint consent in 1921. It was not until the late 1930s that the British started to use the McMahon Line on official maps of the region. China took the position that the Tibetan government should not have been allowed to make a such a treaty, rejecting Tibets claims of independent rule. For its part, Tibet did not object to any section of the McMahon Line excepting the demarcation of the trading town of Tawang, which the Line placed under British-Indian jurisdiction. However, up until World War II, Tibetan officials were allowed to administer Tawang with complete authority. Due to the increased threat of Japanese and Chinese expansion during this period, British Indian troops secured the town as part of the defense of Indias eastern border. In the 1950s India began actively patrolling the region. It found that, at multiple locations, the highest ridges actually fell north of the McMahon Line. Given Indias historic position that the original intent of the Line was to separate the two nations by the highest mountains in the world, in these locations India extended its forward posts northward to the ridges, regarding this move as compliant with the original border proposal, although the Simla Convention did not explicitly state this intention. On Oct. 29, 2008, david Miliband, the British foreign secretary, announced that the previous British actions including the Simla Accord (1913) and thus the McMahon line had been an anachronism and a colonial legacy. He apologized to China for not having renounced those actions earlier. He was supported by Chris Patten, the last British governor of Hong Kong, who called the British position embodied in the Simla Accord(1913) a quaint eccentricity. Events leading up to war Tibet controversy The 1940s saw huge change in South Asia with the Partition of india in 1947 (resulting in the establishment of the two new states of india and pakistan), and the establishment of the peoples Replic of china in 1949. One of the most basic policies for the new Indian government was that of maintaining cordial relations with China, reviving its ancient friendly ties. India was among the first nations to grant diplomatic recognition to the newly-created PRC. At the time, Chinese officials issued no condemnation of Nehrus claims or made any opposition to Nehrus open declarations of control over Aksai Chin. In 1956,Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai stated that he had no claims over Indian controlled territory. He later argued that Aksai Chin was already under Chinese jurisdiction, implying that there was therefore no contradiction with his earlier statement since China did not regard the region as Indian controlled, and that since the British hand-over China had regarded the McCartney MacDonald Line as the relevant border. Zhou later argued that as the boundary was undemarcated and had never been defined by treaty between any Chinese or Indian government, the Indian government could not unilaterally define Aksai Chins borders. However, within a short time the PRC announced its intention to reclaim Tibet from the British, and later extended its influence by placing border posts within the Indian-claimed territory of aksai Chin. India protested against these moves and decided to look for a diplomatic solution to ensure a stable Sino-Indian border. To resolve any doubts about the Indian position, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru declared in parliament that India regarded the McMahon Line as its official border. The Chinese expressed no concern at this statement, and in 1951 and 52, the government of China asserted that there were no frontier issues to be taken up with India. The Indian governments 1950 maps show the Sino-Indian border using undemarcated lines and the Aksai chin frontier is labeled boundary undefined. The Indian governments 1954 maps unilaterally delimited the Sino-Indian border in the Aksai chin,and Sino-Indian borders are no longer indicated as undemarcated. In 1954, Prime Minister Nehru wrote a memo calling for Indias borders to be clearly defined and demarcated: in line with previous Indian philosophy, Indian maps showed a border that, in some places, lay north of the McMahon Line. Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai, in November 1956, again repeated Chinese assurances that the Peoples Republic had no claims on Indian territory, although official Chinese maps showed 120,000 square kilometres of territory claimed by India as Chinese.CIA documents created at the time revealed that Nehru had ignored Burmese premier Ba Swe when he warned Nehru to be cautious when dealing with Zhou. They also allege that Zhou purposefully told Nehru that there were no border issues with India. In 1950 the Chinese Peoples Liberation Army invaded tibet. Four years later, in 1954, China and India negotiated the Five Principles of Peaseful Coexistence by which the two nations agreed to abide in settling their disputes. India presented a frontier map which was accepted by China, and the Indian government under Prime Minister Nehru promoted the slogan Hindi-Chini bhai-bhai (Indians and Chinese are brothers). According to Georgia tech political analyst John W Garver, Nehrus policy on Tibet was to create a strong Sino-Indian partnership which would be catalyzed through agreement and compromise on Tibet. Garver believes that Nehrus previous actions had given him confidence that China would be ready to form an Asian Axis with India. This apparent progress in relations suffered a major setback when, in 1959, Nehru accommodated the Tibetan religious leader, the Dalai Lama, who was fleeing Lhasa after a failed Tibetan uprising against Chinese rule. The Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party, MaoZedong, was enraged and asked the Xinhua news agency to produce reports on Indian expansionists operating in Tibet. Border incidents continued through this period. In August 1959, the PLA took an Indian prisoner at Longju, which had an ambiguous position in the McMahon Line, and two months later in Aksai Chin a clash led to the death of nine Indian frontier policemen. On 2 October, Soviet Premier Nikita khrushchev defended Nehru in a meeting with Mao. This action reinforced Chinas impression that the Soviet Union, the United States and India all had expansionist designs over China. The PLA (Peoples Liberation Army) went so far as to prepare a self-defensive counterattack plan. Negotiations were restarted between the nations, but no progress was made. As a consequence of their non-recognition of the McMahon Line, Chinas maps showed both the North East Frontier Area (NEFA) and Aksai Chin to be Chinese territory. In 1960, Zhou Enlai unofficially suggested that India drop its claims to Aksai Chin in return for a Chinese withdrawal of claims over NEFA. Adhering to his stated position, Nehru believed that China did not have a legitimate claim over either of these territories, and thus was not ready to concede them. This adamance was perceived in China as Indian opposition to Chinese rule in Tibet. Nehru declined to conduct any negotiations on the boundary until Chinese troops withdrew from Aksai Chin; a position supported by the international community. India produced numerous reports on the negotiations, and translated Chinese reports into English to help inform the international debate. China believed that India was simply securing its claim lines in order to continue its grand plans in Tibet.[2] Indias stance that China withdraw fro m Aksai Chin caused continual deterioration of the diplomatic situation to the point at which internal forces were pressurizing Nehru to take a military stance against China. The Forward Policy At the beginning of 1961, Nehru appointed General B M Kaul as army Chief of General Staff, but he refused to increase military spending and prepare for a possible war. That summer, Chinas continuing patrols south of the McMahon Line provoked an Indian response known as the Forward Policy. According to James Barnard Calvin of the U.S. Navy, in 1959, India started sending Indian troops and border patrols into disputed areas. This program created both skirmishes and deteriorating relations between India and China.The aim of this policy was to create outposts behind advancing Chinese troops to inderdict their supplies, forcing their return to China. There were eventually 60 such outposts, including 43 north of the McMahon Line. China viewed this as further confirmation of Indian expansionist plans directed towards Tibet. According to the Indian official history, implementation of the Forward Policy was intended to provide evidence of Indian occupation in the previously unoccupied region through which Chinese troops had been patrolling. Kaul was confident, through contact with Indian Intelligence and CIA information, that China would not react with force. Indeed at first the PLA simply withdrew, but eventually Chinese forces began to counter-encircle the Indian positions. This led to a tit-for-tat Indian reaction, with both forces attempting to outmanoeuver each other. However, despite the escalating nature of the dispute, the two forces withheld from engaging each other directly. Chinese attention was diverted for a time by the military activity of the Nationalists on Taiwan, but on 23 June the U.S. assured China that a Nationalist invasion would not be permitted. Chinas heavy artillery facing Taiwan could then be moved to Tibet. It took China six to eight months to gather the resources needed for the war, according to Anil Athale, author of the official Indian history. The Chinese sent a large quantity of non-military supplies to Tibet through the Indian port of Calcutta. Early incidents Various border conflicts and military incidents between India and China flared up throughout the summer and autumn of 1962. In May, the Indian Air Force was told not to plan for close air support, although it was assessed as being a feasible way to repel the unbalanced ratio of Chinese to Indian troops. In June, a skirmish caused the deaths of dozens of Chinese troops. The Indian Intelligence Bureau received information about a Chinese buildup along the border which could be a precursor to war. During the period of June-July 1962, the Indian military planners began advocating probing actions against the Chinese, and accordingly, moved mountain troops forward to cut off Chinese supply lines. According to Patterson, the Indian motives were threefold: 1. Test Chinese resolve and intentions regarding India. 2. Test whether India would enjoy Soviet backing in the event of a Sino-Indian war. 3. Create sympathy for India within the US, with whom relations had deteriorated after the Indian annexation of Goa. On 10 July 1962, 350 Chinese troops surrounded an Indian post in Chushul but withdrew after a heated argument via loudspeaker. On 22 July, the Forward Policy was extended to allow Indian troops to push back Chinese troops already established in disputed territory. Whereas Indian troops were previously ordered to fire only in self-defense, all post commanders were now given discretion to open fire upon Chinese forces if threatened. In August, the Chinese military improved its combat readiness along the McMahon Line and began stockpiling ammunition, weapons and gasoline. Confrontation at Thag La In June 1962, Indian forces established an outpost at Dhola, on the southern slopes of the Thag la Ridge. Dhola lay north of the McMahon Line but south of the ridges India maintains the McMahon Line was supposed to represent. In August, China issued diplomatic protests and began occupying positions at the top of Thag La. On 8 September, a 60-strong PLA unit descended to the south side of the ridge and occupied positions that dominated one of the Indian posts at Dhola. Fire was not exchanged but Nehru said to the media that the Indian Army had instructions to free our territory and the troops had been given discretion to use force. On 11 September, it was decided that all forward posts and patrols were given permission to fire on any armed Chinese who entered Indian territory. However, the operation to occupy Thagla was flawed in that Nehrus directives were unclear and it got underway very slowly because of this. In addition to this, each man had to carry 35kg of luggage over the long trek and this severely slowed down the reaction. By the time the Indian battalion reached the point of conflict, Chinese units controlled both banks of the Namka Chu River.On 20 September, Chinese troops threw grenades at Indian troops and a firefight developed, triggering a long series of skirmishes for the rest of September. Some Indian troops, including Brigadier Dalvi who commanded the forces at Thag La, were also concerned that the territory they were fighting for was not strictly territory that we should have been convinced was ours.According to Neville maxwell, even members of the Indian defence ministry were categorically concerned with the validity of the fighting in Thag La. On 3 October, a week before the triggering of the war, Zhou Enlai visited Nehru in new delhi promising there would be no war. On 4 October, Kaul assigned some troops with securing regions south of the Thagla Ridge. Kaul decided to first secure Yumtso La, a strategically important position, before re-entering the lost Dhola post. Kaul had then realised that the attack would be desperate and the Indian government tried to stop escalation into an all-out war. Indian troops travelling to Thagla had suffered in the previously unexperienced conditions, two gurkha troops died of pulmonary edema. On 10 October, an Indian Punjabi patrol of 50 troops to Yumtso La were met by an emplaced Chinese position of some 1,000 soldiers. Indian troops were in no position for battle, as Yumtso La was 16,000 feet (4,900 m) above sea level and Kaul did not plan on having artillery support for the troops. The Chinese troops opened fire on the Indians under their belief that they were north of the McMahon Line. The Indians were surrounded by Chinese positions which used mortar fire. However, they managed to hold off the first Chinese assault, inflicting heavy casualties. At this point, the Indian troops were in a position to push the Chinese back with mortar and machine gun fire. However, Brigadier Dalvi opted not to fire, as it would mean decimating the Rajput who were still in the area of the Chinese regrouping. They helplessly watched the Chinese ready themselves for a second assault. In the second Chinese assault, the Indians began their retreat, realising the situation was hopeless. The Indian patrol suffered 25 casualties, with the Chinese suffering 33. The Chinese troops held their fire as the Indians retreated, and then buried the Indian dead with military honors, as witnessed by the retreating soldiers. This was the first occurrence of heavy fighting in the war. This attack had grave implications for India and Nehru tried to solve the issue, but by 18 October it was clear that the Chinese were preparing for an attack on India, with massive troop buildups on the border. A long line of mules and porters had also been observed supporting the buildup and reinforcement of positions south of the Thagla ridge. Preparations for war Motives Two of the major factors leading up to Chinas eventual conflicts with Indian troops were Indias stance on the disputed borders and perceived Indian subversion in Tibet. There was a perceived need to punish and end perceived Indian efforts to undermine Chinese control of Tibet, Indian efforts which were perceived as having the objective of restoring the pre-1949 status quo ante of Tibet. The other was a perceived need to punish and end perceived Indian aggression against Chinese territory along the border. John W. Garver argues that the first perception was incorrect based on the state of the Indian military and polity in the 1960s, it was, nevertheless a major reason for Chinas going to war. However, he argues the Chinese perception of aggression to be substantially accurate. The CIAs recently declassified Polo documents reveal contemporary American analysis of Chinese motives during the war. According to this document, Chinese apparently were motivated to attack by one primary considerationtheir determination to retain the ground on which PLA forces stood in 1962 and to punish the Indians for trying to take that ground. Another factor which affected Chinas decision for war with India was a perceived need to stop a Soviet-US-India encirclement and isolation of China. Indias relations with the Soviet Union and United States were both strong at this time, but the Soviets were preoccupied by the Cuban Missile Crisis and would not interfere with the Sino-Indian War. P.B. Sinha suggests that China timed the war exactly in parallel with American actions so as to avoid any chance of American or Soviet involvement. American buildup of forces around Cuba occurred on the same day as the first major clash at Dhola while Chinas buildup between the 10th and 20th of October coincided exactly with the United States establishment of a blockade against Cuba which began on the 20th of October. Garver argues that the Chinese correctly assessed Indian border policies, particularly the Forward Policy, as attempts for incremental seizure of Chinese-controlled territory. On Tibet, Garver argues that one of the major factors leading to Chinas decision for war with India was a common tendency of humans to attribute others behavior to interior motivations, while attributing their own behavior to situational factors. Studies from China published in the 1990s confirmed that the root cause for China going to war with India was the perceived aggression in Tibet, with the forward policy simply catalyzing the aggressive Chinese reaction. Neville Maxwell and Allen Whiting argue that the Chinese leadership believed they were defending territory they believed to be legitimately Chinese, and which was already under de facto Chinese occupation prior to Indian advances, and regarded the Forward Policy as an Indian attempt at creeping annexation. Mao Zedong himself compared the Forward Policy to a strategic advance in Chinese chess: Their [Indias] continually pushing forward is like crossing the Chu han boundry. What should we do? We can also set out a few pawns, on our side of the river. If they dont then cross over, thats great. If they do cross, well eat them up [chess metaphor meaning to take the opponents pieces]. Of course, we cannot blindly eat them. Lack of forbearance in small matters upsets great plans. We must pay attention to the situation. The motive for the Forward Policy was to cut off the supply routes for Chinese troops posted in NEFA and Aksai Chin. According to the official Indian history, the forward policy was continued because of its initial success, as Chinese troops withdrew when they encountered areas already occupied by Indian troops. The Forward Policy was having success in cutting out supply lines of Chinese troops who had advanced South of the McMahon Line. However, the Forward Policy rested on the assumption that Chinese forces were not likely to use force against any of our posts, even if they were in a position to do so. No serious reappraisal of this policy took place even when Chinese forces ceased withdrawing. By early 1962, the Chinese leadership began to fear that Indias intentions were to launch a massive attack against Chinese troops, and that the Indian leadership wanted a war. In 1961, the Indian army had been sent into Goa, a small region without any other international borders apart from the Indian one, after Portugal refused to surrender the exclave to the Indian Union. Although this action met little to no international protest or opposition, China saw it as an example of Indias expansionist nature, especially in light of heated rhetoric from Indian politicians. Indias Home Minister declared, If the Chinese will not vacate the areas occupied by it, India will have to repeat What she did in Goa. India will certainly drive out the Chinese forces,while another member of the Indian Congress Party pronounced, India will take steps to end [Chinese] aggression on Indian soil just as she ended Portuguese aggression in Goa. By mid-1962, it was apparent to the Chinese leadership that negot iations had failed to make any progress, and the Forward Policy was increasingly perceived as a grave threat as Delhi increasingly sent probes deeper into border areas and cut off Chinese supply lines. Foreign Minister Marshal Chen Yi commented at one high-level meeting, Nehrus forward policy is a knife. He wants to put it in our heart. We cannot close our eyes and await death. The Chinese leadership believed that their restraint on the issue was being perceived by India as weakness, leading to continued provocations, and that a major counterblow was needed to stop perceived Indian aggression. Xu Yan, prominent Chinese military historian and professor at the PLAs National Defense University, gives an account of the Chinese leaderships decision to go to war. By late September 1962, the Chinese leadership had begun to reconsider their policy of armed coexistence, which had failed to address their concerns with the forward policy and Tibet, and consider a large, decisive strike. The Chinese leadership initially held a sympathetic view towards India as the latter had been ruled by British colonial masters for centuries. However, Nehrus forward policy convinced PRC leadership that the independent Indian leadership was a reincarnation of British imperialism. Thus, the Indian government must be taught an unforgettable lesson. Mao Zedong stated: Rather than being constantly accused of aggression, its better to show the world what really happens when China indeed moves its muscles. Military planning The Indian side was confident war would not be triggered and made little preparat

The Advancement of Technology Essay -- Military Technology

War has been a reoccurring part of America’s history for the past 230 years. From the 1700s to the present, America has gotten into many different situations and turmoil, which eventually lead to the wars we currently study and know about today. Technological advancements in warfare were necessary and a great obligation during times of war. This was pursued with drastic improvement. From the transformation of the use of smoothbore muskets during the Civil War to the industrial revolution leading to weaponry innovations post civil war, the nature of warfare dramatically changed. These developments proved to be proficient in battle. In the midst of these hundreds of years, while many technological advances demonstrated to be efficient in battle, the machine gun was one of the most significant advancements in technology that changed the face of warfare through its transformation of operations and strategy. During the civil war before the introduction of the machine guns, union soldiers primarily used smoothbore muskets. â€Å"The rifle’s low muzzle velocity and consequent high parabolic trajectory made for difficult long-range shooting, especially since soldiers engaged in little target practice and received virtually no training in estimating distances or in using the adjustable sights to compensate for the bullet’s curved flight. The tangled terrain of most battlefields—and the black powder smoke that engulfed every battle—often rendered enemy soldiers invisible until they were within smoothbore range† (Hess 288). This was assumed to be the reason of why the war was prolonged, and the combat losses were higher during the smoothbore era. Also with an ability of only firing a â€Å"maximum of three rounds per minute† (Howey), this rat... ...Goldsmith, Dolf L., and R. Blake. Stevens. The Devil's Paintbrush: Sir Hiram Maxim’s Gun. Toronto: Collector Grade Publications, 1989. Print. 2. Hess, Earl J. The Rifle Musket in Civil War Combat: Reality and Myth. Lawrence, Kan: University Press of Kansas, 2008. Print. 3. Howey, Allan W. "Weaponry: The Rifle-Musket and the Minià © Ball  » History Net." History Net. Weider History Group, Oct. 1999. Web. 12 May 2012. . 4. Lee, Loyd E. World War II. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1999. Print. 5. Popenker, Max R. "Modern Firearms - MachineGuns." Max R. Popenker, 1999-2010. Web. 10 May 2012. . 6. Simkin, John. "Machine-Gun." Spartacus Educational - Home Page. John Simkin. Web. 10 May 2012. .

Role Reversal between Children and Adults

#1) There are certain dangers that parents often over look even if they try to pamper their child and one of which is the new culture that has emerged in our very home (Beder, 1998). This brings far more danger to their child than they can imagine. Consumerism is what advertisers teach our children as they bombard them with advertisements of junk foods, toys and basically any product that has children as their target.They teach children the freedom to choose from tons of flavors of junk foods that they release in the market making the parents obliged to ask the preferences of their children before buying the product. The parents therefore have less or no influence on the food or toys for their children. They buy what their children want to simply avoid the â€Å"nagging factor† from their children and to save time in returning food that their children does not want to eat. This in a way reverses the role of the parent and child where the parent ought to decide for their childr en.In this generation, parents give in to their children when it comes to food and toys. Children at the age of five now have the freedom to choose what kind of food they want and the toys they want to play with. Since these children have no purchasing power, they turn to their parents who give in to their demands. The parents claim that their children know a lot more of the products than they do. This can be attributed to the fact that magazines for children have most of the pages allotted for junk food and toy advertisements.At an early age the children are thought about commercialism and the culture of consumerism even if they have no purchasing power, thus the book â€Å"Born to Buy† by Juliet Schor is appropriately named. Even kids nowadays have their concept of booze as finding of Wynne Tyree, the director of JustKid incorporated show that kids use sugar instead of caffeine to give then energy for the day. It is used the same way as adults use coffee. #2) Kids nowadays are way different. They tell you what they want and if you don’t give them that they can be a real pain.I do agree that the new culture that is cultivated in the minds of our children through the media has a lot to do with this behavior. I don’t intend for my kinds to be raised in a culture of consumerism. They will become a slave of capitalism and will buy and spend even if they have no money for such luxury. I believe that parents should still decide what heir children will eat since they know what is best for their child. We should not give in to their demands and prevent the reversal of roles.Advertisers only encourage, manipulate and persuade these children into a lifestyle of wastefulness and extravagance and what is worst is that it has long term effects on our children. It is a parent’s goal to be a good provider for our children but financing their excessive demands is way out of context. I think responsible parents should think for their children when it comes to the goods that we buy, after all, we are the ones who have the power to but. With that power is the responsibility of buying the right kind of goods for our children.

Free Essays on GIs And Frauleins

In this book, Hohn takes a look at various aspects of the personal and social interactions between the American GI’s and the German civilian population. In the end she comes to the conclusion that then Germans assessed these changes in their lives as a process of Americanization rather than that of Westernization or furthermore modernization. One can say that she substantiated this thesis entirely based upon a number of points. First and foremost, the Germans adapted the American social views on sexuality. This was much to the contrary of even their neighbours to the West France, who were much opposed to this ideology. Second, was the Germans adaptation of America’s role for women in the work place. Many of the German women found great paying jobs working in the U.S. military base. This was much to the opposition of the German Conservatives, and to the views of many throughout Europe who felt the woman’s job was at home. Third, was the implantation of American se gregation of the blacks from the whites that became introduced later in the fifties. This was quite the contrary to what was the case prior to this Americanization. For as General Colin Powell once said of his service in Germany in 1958 that, â€Å"for blacks, especially those out of the South, Germany was a breath of freedom. For as this Americanization took place Germany went from the number one requested spot for black soldiers to one of the least.† Take those examples along with the Germans assimilations of American fashion, music, and overall lifestyle one can easily say that Hohn substantiated her Thesis. The basis for Hohn’s research is quite extensive, actually she went well beyond extensive almost to the point of being absurd. The bibliography section of her book is twenty-six pages long, which goes to prove her research was quite extensive. One would have to say that she made extensive use of archival material, for a lot of the things she used she called prim... Free Essays on GI's And Frauleins Free Essays on GI's And Frauleins In this book, Hohn takes a look at various aspects of the personal and social interactions between the American GI’s and the German civilian population. In the end she comes to the conclusion that then Germans assessed these changes in their lives as a process of Americanization rather than that of Westernization or furthermore modernization. One can say that she substantiated this thesis entirely based upon a number of points. First and foremost, the Germans adapted the American social views on sexuality. This was much to the contrary of even their neighbours to the West France, who were much opposed to this ideology. Second, was the Germans adaptation of America’s role for women in the work place. Many of the German women found great paying jobs working in the U.S. military base. This was much to the opposition of the German Conservatives, and to the views of many throughout Europe who felt the woman’s job was at home. Third, was the implantation of American se gregation of the blacks from the whites that became introduced later in the fifties. This was quite the contrary to what was the case prior to this Americanization. For as General Colin Powell once said of his service in Germany in 1958 that, â€Å"for blacks, especially those out of the South, Germany was a breath of freedom. For as this Americanization took place Germany went from the number one requested spot for black soldiers to one of the least.† Take those examples along with the Germans assimilations of American fashion, music, and overall lifestyle one can easily say that Hohn substantiated her Thesis. The basis for Hohn’s research is quite extensive, actually she went well beyond extensive almost to the point of being absurd. The bibliography section of her book is twenty-six pages long, which goes to prove her research was quite extensive. One would have to say that she made extensive use of archival material, for a lot of the things she used she called prim...

Teaching Children with ADHD †Education Term Paper

Teaching Children with ADHD – Education Term Paper Free Online Research Papers Teaching Children with ADHD Education Term Paper ADHD has become a â€Å"buzz† term in the educational environment. Since ADHD is so commonly encountered by educators in both special education and general education, it is crucial for a teacher to understand it, know the science behind it, and be able to provide the best educational environment for students with it. ADHD stands for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Originally, the disorder was labeled ADD (attention deficit disorder). But due to the research by Russell Barkley, a Harvard psychologist, whose results showed that 85% of all children who suffer from attention deficit disorder also suffer from the hyperactivity component (Loechler, 1999). Therefore, the two disorders have been combined to form the single disorder of ADHD. The cause of the disorder is not well understood. Unfortunately, parents often blame themselves when a child is diagnosed with ADHD, but scientists now believe that there is a genetic and neurobiological explanation for the disorder (Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, at http://mayoclinic.com). ADHD was once thought to be exclusively caused by a chemical imbalance because children and adults diagnosed with ADHD appeared to have low levels of dopamine, which is a chemical that sends messages to the part of the brain involved in attention, movement and motivation. But more recently, brain scans of children with ADHD also show changes in the neural pathways that carry these messages (Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, at http://mayoclinic.com). Therefore, researchers believe that it is possible that the dysfunction of these pathways could be interfering with communication between the parts of the brain that regulate attention, planning, impulsive behavior and motor control, which are all areas of difficulty for people with ADHD. Heredity may be the most common cause of ADHD. Research shows that one in four children with ADHD have at least one relative with the disorder, and when one identical twin has ADHS, the other twin almost always has it as well (Causes of ADHD, at http://myadhd.com/causesofadhd.html). Other possible causes of ADHD are childhood exposure to environmental toxins and maternal smoking, drug use and exposure to toxins during pregnancy. There is evidence that preschool children exposed to lead and industrial chemicals such as Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) have an increased risk of developmental and behavioral problems. Children whose mother smoked, took drugs, or had exposure to environmental toxins during pregnancy may also show signs of developmental and behavioral, however, it is unlikely that such exposure accounts for differences in brain development in the vast majority of children and adolescents with ADHD (Causes of ADHD, at http://myadhd.com/causesofadhd.html). It is important for teachers to know about the myths surrounding ADHD so that they can accurately answer questions that parents ask. It is commonly believed that diet can be a causative factor to a child’s ADHD. But according to the research, there has been no found correlation between allergies or food sensitivities and ADHD. Despite the lack of evidence, the popular media continues to discuss the role of food in ADHD, particularly that sugar may cause children to become hyperactive and impulsive (Wolraich, 1985). Other theories or myths regarding the cause of ADHD are hormone dysfunction and vestibular system dysfunction. There has been no significant research that has found connections between either of these two dysfunctions and ADHD. Probably the most important myth for teachers to be able to dispel is that poor parenting or problems in the family can cause ADHD. Although some studies show that parents use more negative commands with children with ADHD and less positive reinforcement, this is most likely a result of the child’s non-compliant behavior versus a cause of the child’s ADHD. It is important for teachers and parents to realize that although parenting and family dynamics may not be the cause of ADHD, symptoms of ADHD and the degree to which such symptoms can impact the child’s functioning, can be reduced by parents who provide appropriate accommodations and interventions (Causes of ADHD, at http://myadhd.com/causesofadhd.html). So, what exactly is ADHD and why is it so commonly referred to in today’s educational environments? ADHD is the most commonly diagnosed behavioral disorder of childhood, estimated to affect 3 to 5 percent of school-age children. The main symptoms of ADHD include developmentally inappropriate levels of attention, concentration, activity, distractibility, and impulsivity. Children with ADHD usually have functional impairments across multiple settings including home, school, and peer relationships. ADHD has also been shown to have long-term adverse effects on academic performance, vocational success, and social-emotional development (Diagnosis and Treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, at http://consensus.nih.gov/cons). It is very likely that a teacher in today’s educational environment will encounter a student with ADHD. As a teacher, it is important to be able to provide a learning environment appropriate for all students, including those with disabilities such as ADHD. It is important to consider the classroom environment. Since only about half of the students diagnosed with ADHD qualify for special education (Loechler, 1999), and the philosophy of the inclusive classroom has become so popular, it is crucial that teachers are able adapt and modify their classroom and lesson plans to fit a student with ADHD. According to the Council for Exceptional Children, CEC, 1992, There are three strategies for dealing with students with hyper activity: 1) Incorporate movement into the classroom, 2) Allow for positive peer attention, and 3) Provide frequent teacher monitoring (Carbone, 2001). A major challenge for a teacher is to design an inclusive classroom that supports the educational development of a student with ADHD. One major challenge comes with the newer trend of the â€Å"open classroom† which is a loosely-structured arrangement which offers students multiple sites of stimulation such as learning centers, libraries, reading areas, etc. (Carbone, 2001). Although this open classroom set-up may be a wonderful learning environment for the general education students, it may provide too much sound and visual stimulation for a student with ADHD to stay focused on the educational task at hand. This may lead the teacher to make accommodations for a student with ADHD. First, a teacher must put considerable thought into the child’s location in the classroom and must plan supportive classroom features. Carbone, 2001, provides a list of helpful suggestions a teacher can consider when designing a classroom seating arrangement for a child with ADHD: First, the classroom should be arranged in the traditional â€Å"row† seating design. This is the most structured and predictable seating pattern. Second, the student with ADHD should be placed at a desk in the front row next to the teacher’s desk so that he/she will be less distracted by the other students and more likely to focus on the teacher. This will also allow for immediate feedback and close monitoring and will also enable to student to ask for assistance in a more conspicuous manner. Next, make sure that student is not placed near potentially distracting areas such as a window, pencil sharpener, or aquarium. It may be helpful to surround the student with well-behaved, a ttentive, friendly students. Hopefully these students will automatically interact with the student with ADHD and provide a model of proper classroom behavior as well as positive peer interaction. For a student that is over-stimulated, provide a â€Å"work station† in the room where a student can go to do work. This work station can be in a corner of the room, enclosed with book shelves, and could have comfortable chairs and pillows to provide a student with a safe, isolated environment in which to focus on the task at hand. If this work station is considered to be just another of the learning stations in the classroom, the student with ADHD may feel less apprehensive about using it and the other students may be less likely to make fun of the student for using it. Since many students with ADHD have difficulty completing tasks involving fine motor skills, the teacher can provide learning centers and stations that require fine motor skills such as an art center or a compute r center. These centers will benefit all the students, not only the student with ADHD. Lastly, since students with ADHD often feel embarrassed about having to take medication, the teacher can provide a secure, private place for the student to keep and take his medication. Although the most common characteristics of ADHD are the hyperactivity, inattention, and distractibility (Wambold, 1998), another possible difficulty that a teacher may have to deal with is impulsivity. This is when a student blurts out answers before getting called on. Children with ADHD often have difficulty waiting their turn and will interrupt and intrude on other students (Carbone, 2001). Some strategies that Carbone recommends for dealing with impulsivity are cognitive behavior therapy, timeouts, and positive reinforcement. Another characteristic of ADHD is disorganization (Carbone, 2001). In a case study written by Wambold, 1998, the author suggests several strategies for a teacher to help a student with ADHD stay organized. First, designate a specific space for the student to keep his/her materials and school supplies. Organizations skills should be modeled in a routine manner. Next, help the student plan ahead and schedule blocks of time to complete tasks. It may be helpful to provide different colored notebooks for folder for each class to keep the student organized. Also, students should learn to keep a day planner and record all of the things that he/she should accomplish in this planner. The parents should check this planner regularly and help the student keep on track. Throughout the literature research there are a lot of suggestions for teachers on how to best teach a child with ADHD. There are three important topics regarding working with a child with ADHD that have not yet been mentioned. First, it is very important to reward a student when he/she has accomplished the task that has been asked of him/her. It is not enough to just reward the student when he completes his/her school work. It is important to reward for other accomplishments such as listening and following directions, sitting quietly, and positive interaction with other students. The second important idea is parental involvement. Parents play a huge role in the education of children with ADHD. Parents should know there legal rights under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) which requires public schools to provide appropriate services and make reasonable modifications for students with disabilities (Loecher, 1999). Also, parents should be involved in the edu cation of their children so that there can be a continuum of learning from the classroom to the home. Parents should take the time to learn about their child’s disorder and talk with the teacher about the child’s educational goals. Parents can provide a home environment to help the child succeed. The third topic that was not presented in this paper is the use of medication to treat ADHD. The medical treatment of ADHD, although very important, goes beyond the scope of this paper. But it is important to realize that you can not consider the treatment of ADHD without at least considering the medical treatment component. â€Å"Treating ADHD requires a multimodal approach. For many children, medication, primarily psychostimulants, is an important part of treatment. Behavior management is also crucial. Without specialized interventions by teachers and parents, most children with ADHD find it very difficult to meet academic and behavior concerns.†(Loecher, 1999). Looking at the above quote, there is a great amount of responsibility placed on teachers to provide students with ADHD an appropriate learning environment. To do this, a teacher must be aware of the causes of ADHD, know the symptoms of ADHD, and be able to modify and design the classroom to allow a child with ADHD to have a chance to succeed in education and society. This is a challenge that all educators should look forward to and be ready to take head on. REFERENCES Carbone, E. (2001). Arranging the Classroom with an Eye (and Ear) to Students with ADHD. Teaching Exceptional Children, 34(2), 72-81. Loechler, K. (1999). Frequently Asked Questions About ADHD and the Answers from From the Internet. Teaching Exceptional Children, 31(6), 28-31. Wambold, Y.C. (1998). An ADHD Success Story: Strategies for Teachers and Students. Teaching Exceptional Children, 30(6), 8-13. Electronic References Causes of ADHD, at http://myadhd.com/causesofadhd.html Mayo Clinic Staff. (2005). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, at http://mayoclinic.com National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Conference Statement. (1998). Diagnosis and Treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, at http://consensus.nih.gov/cons Research Papers on Teaching Children with ADHD - Education Term PaperEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenPersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseStandardized TestingInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesGenetic EngineeringResearch Process Part OnePETSTEL analysis of IndiaHip-Hop is Art

Plato Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Plato - Essay Example In this tragedy lies heroism and moral fortitude. Although deemed guilty by the then prevailing laws of Athens, he stands righteous in spirit. Even when given the choice between a life in exile or immediate execution, he chose the latter as a matter of adhering to principle. The following passages will elaborate this assessment. Socrates was brought to trial by the democratic Athenian jury, which had scores to settle with prominent members of the previous regime. Socrates’ association with the previous regime made him a target of persecution, irrespective of the veracity of the alleged charges. He was accused of undermining religious and state authority and for also corrupting the minds of young Athenians. But in reality, Socrates made no deliberate attempts to bring down the religious and state authorities. Instead, he encouraged his students to adopt a critical approach to moral actions, also suggesting that the Athenian rulers themselves are not exempt from such scrutiny. E ven when sentenced to death by the Athenian court, Socrates did not try to evade his fate, but rather accepted it with equanimity. Even though he is termed ‘guilty’ by the Athenian court, his rationale for accepting the verdict reveals the moral soundness of his decision, thus, in effect, vindicating his moral righteousness. (Vlastoc, 1991, p.114) For example, â€Å"At 49c-d Socrates elaborates his leading premise to 'one should not wrong any person', adding to this 'not even if one has been wronged by him'. At 49e5-7 he states a further premise 'one should do what one has agreed to do, provided that it is not wrong'. He then proposes that it follows from these premises that it would be wrong for him to escape (49e9-50a3)†. (Bostock, 1990, p.2) By reasoning in this fashion, Socrates puts principles ahead of self-interest. In this broad sense, he is really not guilty. Moreover, his concern for law and order among Athenian civilians made him put public interest ahe ad of his own. For example, â€Å"if Socrates tries to escape, he will be attempting, for his part, to destroy the Laws, and (thereby) the whole city; for a city could not survive if the verdicts reached by the courts were set aside and rendered powerless by individuals. (50a8-b8).† (Bostock, 1990, p.2) Socrates reasons that one should do nothing wrong, further adding that his own life till that point was lived in accord with this premise. Since disobeying Athenian laws would amount to doing wrong, he argues against his own bodily interest and surrenders to the court. He thus accepts the death penalty imposed on him as a matter of righteous conduct and lawful behavior. It is easy to extend this logic and come to the conclusion that Socrates thought that it would always be wrong for any citizen of Athens to disobey any law of the city. But a detailed analysis of all of Socrates’ sayings shows that this is not the case. Moreover, there is ambiguity and contradiction with in the set of Athenian law that creates sufficient doubt about the ‘guilty’ verdict: â€Å"The Laws say that if Socrates escapes he will have both failed to obey and failed to persuade (52a3-4). Now quite a natural way of taking this charge would be to suppose that it claims that Socrates has not obeyed the law against impiety and corrupting the young, and also has not persuaded the jury that he should not be condemned on this account. If that is the correct way of taking it, then our proposed third