William Shakespeare Quotes and Quotations Essay Example for Free

William Shakespeare Quotes and Quotations Essay Famous Quotes and Quotations from the plays of William Shakespeare Shakespearean quotations such as To be, or not to be and O Romeo, Romeo! wherefore art thou Romeo? form some of literatures most celebrated lines and if asked to recite one of William Shakespeares most famous quotes or quotations the majority of people would choose one of these. However, many expressions that we use every day originated in William Shakespeares plays. We use the Bards words all of the time in everyday speech, however, we are often totally unaware that we are borrowing sayings from his work! William Shakespeare is attributed with writing 38 plays, Famous Shakespearean sonnets and 5 other poems and used about 21,000 different words. William Shakespeare is credited by the Oxford English Dictionary with the introduction of nearly 3,000 words into the language. Its no wonder that expressions from the works of William Shakespeare have become anonymous parts of the English language. William Shakespeare Quotes Plagiarism! The words and quotes of the William Shakespeare can be found everywhere! Shakespearean quotations can be heard on the radio and television on a daily basis. The advertising media love to make use of William Shakespeare quotes and sayings. Famous authors have even used Shakespearean quotations as titles for their books such Aldous Huxley and Brave New World. And speaking of famous authors did you know that What the dickens was one of the quotes used by William Shakespeare, long before Charles Dickens was born? Other famous Shakespearean quotations such as Ill not budge an inch, We have seen better days ,A dish fit for the gods are all used frequently and, almost as a parody, the expression its Greek to me is often used to describe a frustrated students view of Shakespeares work! Politicians dig deep into their pool of William Shakespeare quotes and quotations such as Fair Play, Foregone Conclusion , One Fell Swoop, and Into Thin Air . Furthermore, other Shakespearean quotes such as to thine own self be true have become widely spoken pearls of wisdom. So quotes from William Shakespeare have now become household words and sayings and just to emphasise the point household word is also one of the Bards anonymous quotations! Some Famous examples of William Shakespeare Quotes and Quotations ! To be, or not to be: that is the question. Hamlet (Act III, Scene I). Neither a borrower nor a lender be; For loan oft loses both itself and friend, and borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry. Hamlet (Act I, Scene III). This above all: to thine own self be true. Hamlet (Act I, Scene III). Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears; I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him. (Act III, Scene II). But, for my own part, it was Greek to me. (Act I, Scene II). The course of true love never did run smooth. (Act I, Scene I). Best Known William Shakespeare Quotes and Quotations ! The most celebrated of William Shakespeares sayings and quotations from each of his famous plays are listed below. Full details of the plays by William Shakespeare, together with their full scripts, may be accessed via each plays specific section. forwarded from. http://www. william-shakespeare. info/william-shakespeare-quotes. htm

Comparing Albert Camus The Stranger (The Outsider) and Jean-Paul Sartr

Lack of Order in Albert Camus' The Stranger (The Outsider) and Jean-Paul Sartre's Nausea  Ã‚   Nausea, by Jean-Paul Sartre, and The Stranger, by Albert Camus, refuse to impose order on their events by not using psychology, hierarchies, coherent narratives, or cause and effect. Nausea refuses to order its events by not inscribing them with psychology or a cause for existence, and it contrasts itself with a text by Balzac that explains its events. Nausea resists the traditional strategy of including the past to predict a character's future. It instead focuses on the succession of presents, which troubles social constructions such as "stories" and "adventure." The Stranger resists traditional categories of order by not dividing Meursault's body and soul, or body and mind. It denies the order of cause and effect by providing no motive for the murder of the Arab, and resists a reductive reading of itself as a case history of a "monster." The novel contrasts its refusal to interpret with the coherent narrative that the prosecutors create. The Stranger and Nausea explore similar stra tegies as they interrogate ways to view the world without a system of interpretative illusions. Nausea refuses to assign order to its events by choosing not to justify them with psychology or cause. Roquentin finds himself unable to pick up a piece of paper, for no apparent physical reason. However, he refuses to psychoanalyze the event. He writes that he will not traffic in "secrets or soul states," or to "play with the inner life" (9). When he cannot pick up the paper, he decides that no explanation is necessary: he simply decides "I was unable" (10). By not assigning psychology, Roquentin allows the event to have a gratuitous existence. Similarly, ... ...contrasts itself with an inner text that uses interpretation to assign order to the events of the world. Nausea contrasts its denial of cause and psychology with the section from Eugenie Grandet, and The Stranger contrasts its refusal to assign a cause to the murder with the prosecutor's coherent narrative. They both incorporate gratuitous events, and refuse to supply an interpretation for them. Roquentin refuses to explain why he is unable to pick up the piece of paper in Nausea, and Meursault finds no means, or necessity, to interpret his murder of the Arab in The Stranger. Both novels explore ways to view the world without reducing it into a comforting but illusory system of order. Works Cited Camus, Albert. The Stranger, trans. Mathew Ward. New York: Random House, Inc., 1988. Sartre, Jean-Paul. Nausea. Trans. Lloyd Alexander. NY: New Directions, 1964.

Cuban missile crisis Vietnam war

The most dangerous passage to Cold War was the Cuban Missile crisis during the 1960’s. This is a confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States in Cuba. Robert F. Kennedy’s Thirteen Days is the portrayal of the tensions surrounding the Cuban Missile crisis and the analysis of the said conflict. Two sides of the conflict was presented during the conflict between Union Soviet and United States. One side of the ordeal was the Communists of the Soviet Union desire to bring entire European countries under their supremacy and conquer the world.The other side of the conflict was the goal of Americans to the vindication of right and to stop the spead of Communism. During the Cuban Missile crisis, two significant people played important roles. They were America’s president John F. Kennedy and Soviet leader Nikita Krushchev. Both leaders were pressured with what is happening that time. They performed different tactics and strategies on how to deal with the sc enario. Drama took place and a lot of negotiations were arranged for the Cuban Missile crisis.The pressure was triggered after Berlin and Germany were separated and divided among the victorious countries, Allies were formed and three different blocs occured. Nations that has been established after the war remained neutral while western countries which were governed by America and Soviet Union together with their new allies had formed the other two blocs. Soviet Union established allied countries around them and spread and imposed communism to each and every country.America was alarmed and imposed the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan to control Soviet Union in spreading communism. However according to Robert F. Kennedy’s Thirteen Days; two things came to pass that sent threat and tension through the U. S. First was, the Chinese government was overthrown by Communism, which is a big alarm for the threat of superiority of Communism. And the second was the â€Å"CUBAN MISSILE C RISIS† â€Å"page # 2† knowledge and ability of Soviets when it comes to nuclear and atomic issues. There was a fear in the U. S. because of the threat of a nuclear war.The crisis began when Soviet Union Leader Nikita Krushchev plans to install missiles in Cuba because of the American’s Missile were installed in Turkey which is adjacent to Soviet Union and he did not want that America would take over Cuba and overthrow Fidel Castro’s communist government. The Soviet Union leader also considered newly elected John F. Kennedy’s reaction to his plans. Krushchev conclude that Kennedy was a weak, faulty and could not bear pressures and tensions. He (Krushschev) was a leader who based his premises on hasty generalizations because he pre-judged Kennedy because he was a newly elected president.On the other hand, John F. Kennedy was reluctant about what is happening around him. His administration issued a warning about the impending crisis in Cuba. This is t he Memo 181; it states study of probable military, poitical and social impacts in the installment of missiles in Cuba which could reach the United States. Kennedy made a decision which was effective because he first consulted people around him and querried for facts so that his plans would be perfect and would not lead onto decisions which will lead to more seroius problems like a world nuclear war.He also kept the informations for himself first before broadcasting it to the American nation because he wanted that his administrations plan would be a secret and would not leak for the enemies. When National Security Adviser McGeorge Bundy learned a bad news that Soviets were constructing an offensive missile in Cuba was positive. He did not first told the president about what’s taking place in Cuba. Instead he gets more information and he wanted the president to have a rest for a more challenging decisions for America. On October 16, the Thirteen Days had began, Bundy told the p resident about the construction of missiles and theâ€Å"CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS† â€Å"page # 3† president immediately ordered a meeting for the senior officials which he termed as Ex Comm. They planned secretly and develop their strategies on how to destabilize the construction of ballistic missiles. John F. Kennedy was a leader who wants everything to be clear and concise. After the deliberations and discussions were done, strategies were finally made and ready for execution. But first Kennedy briefed his people and made his first decision: to hold all military military equipment under ship to Cuba.This was the Proclamation 3504 known as the quarantine order. And during his speech on October 22 he said to the Soviets, â€Å"And one path we shall never choose, and that is the path of surrender or submission. † JFK exudes a leader whose strong and tough with his decisions which Krushchev miscalculated when he planned to test Kennedy with his plans. Then the crisis even worsens each day passed. Secret negotiations were made. And trying to avoid the war the two leaders resorted by changing of letters. A naval blockade was implemented by America in the Carribbean and Cuban coast which triggered the Soviet nation.Because of it, on the 26th day of October, Krushchev seemed to be willing to remove the missiles in Cuba in exchange for America’s commitment not to invade Cuba. But on the next day, Krushschev proposed a different argument and that is if Soviets will remove their missiles in Cuba, it follows that US must also remove their missiles in Turkey. This proposal from Krushchev was just, but he is so demanding about this matter. He was insistent about the matter because of the loss of arms and military equipment in Cuba which disband their operations and still he remained confident with his decision.Thus, Kennedy made the right decision. Kennedy did not support Krushchev’s second proposal, instead he wrote Krushchev and made a de al to remove the blockade and agree not to invade Cuba if Krushchev would remove the missiles in Cuba. JFK also secretly proposed the dismantling of US missiles in â€Å"CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS† â€Å"page # 4† Turkey. The Soviet leader agreed and the crisis ended. The result was Krushchev lost prestige while Kennedy gained. Cuba remained under communist dictatorship and US left it.Both Leaders were good leaders and have their own political and social will. They both fights for what they know what is right for their country and beliefs. I can say that John F. Kennedy was one of the best presidents of US because of his courage and making rational decisions. While Nikita S. Krushchev fights for what he believes in and his people but he failed. Essay2 (Vietnam War) United States played a big role in the Vietnam War and it was the biggest and longest military conflict of the nation. Many lives were affected not only in Vietnam but also in America.US army troops were sent to S outh Vietnam to fight against North Vietnam and National Liberation Front because they want to unify the North and South Vietnam to become a Communist Republic. And protesters from the US were greatly affected. The main issue during the Vietnam war was the opinion of the american people toeards the issue which had caused a lot of speculations in the government and also the US academic institutions. According to Turley (1986), even at the start of US escalatory moves in the beginning of 1965 there were limits to American public and congressional tolerance of the war's expenses and duration.Turley (1986) moreover explained that these limits were worsen by the administration under Johnson: its refusal to arouse popular emotion on the war's behalf, its failure to make an effective strategies for massive US intervention, its public misrepresentation of the war's denelopment and of its own political and social intentions, and its refusal to make solid and tough political choices. American s treated Vietnam War as unpopular and insignificant and yet it is the longest war americans fought for. To sum it all it is the most disastrous war that involved the Americanâ€Å"CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS† â€Å"page # 5† people. Many soldiers have lost their lives during those time. Many people in the United states protests on the intervention of US in the said war and also many americans supported the war for Vietnam not to be under a communist government. During those times US was so divided and turmoil and chaos happened, wounds that Vietnam caused will never heal for many of the more than two million American veterans life from the war was given to fight against communism in Vietnam (Herring, 2002).More or less sixty thousand Americans lost their lives in fighting for the war. The United States spent about $150 billion dollars. American got involved in the war during 1955 when the first american advisors arrived in Vietnam. Then, American combat troops arrives in 196 5 and had finished fighting for the civil war in Vietnam up to the end when cease-fire was ordered and reconciled on January of 1973. I can say now that Vietnam War was a story of the olden times for the new generation americans.Cambodian Invasion was a played a big scene in the Vietnam this is when President Richard Nixon ordered an attack against North Vietnam and NLF (National Liberation Front), the main goal why Nixon ordered an attack, according to Turley (1986), was to demolish bases of communism and provide arms and military support to the war in Vietnam, for the protection American troops, and to make sure of the withdrawal of America from Vietnam.Students and faculties in different universities in US that time who were not in favor of the Vietnam War felt that President Nixon had deceived them, that the hated war was to be expanded and be pursued (Turley, 1986). Students from Oberlin, Princeton, and Rutgers demonstrated against Vietnam War and Nixon that very night. Many ac ademic institutions had closed and a lot of organizations who opposed Vietnam war had formed demonstrations all over the country. â€Å"CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS† â€Å"page # 6†Different ways of expressing their sympathy for the Americans who catered their lives for Vietnam and dismay for the decision of the president was obvious by that time. Many protest across the country took every possible form and were carried out under every ban, slogan and chant. Strikes, boycotts, and shutdowns were carried out together with rallies in the campus, marches and convocations; across the country there was massive flag lowering, wearing of black armbands, several memorial services, portrayal of funerals and vigil; there were seminars with workshops, and research projects.Vigilant students have also had an interaction with the public especially with the residents and invited each and every household to come in their campus and talk about the issue of Vietnam War. American students and a cademic institutions played a big role in protesting against the Vietnam War. The heart of the young american people was awaken for the love of their country and countrymen. They displayed brotherhood, camarraderie and oneness during the Vietnam War protests.America stood as one in fighting for each and every american whose fighting for the right for Vietnam and all nations as well. Many lives were transformed during the war. And still many lives were taken. Vietnam War was an untold story for Americans. But it made United States a country with strong people and united nations. References: Herring, George C. (2002). America's Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 1950–1975. retrieved April 21, 2007 from http://www. vietnamwar. com/ Kennedy, Robert F. (1969).Thirteen Days: A Memoir of the Cuban Missile Crisis; ISBN 0-393- 31834-6. retrieved April 20, 2007 from http://www. lawbuzz. com/movies/thirteen_days/thirteen_days_ch1. htm Pope, Ronald R. , Soviet Views on the Cuban Missile Crisis: Myth and Reality in Foreign Policy Analysis; University Press of America, 1982. from http://www. lawbuzz. com/movies/thirteen_days/thirteen_days_ch1. htm Turley, William S. (1986) The Second Indochina War: A Short Political and Military History, 1954–1975.. Retrieved April 21, 2007 from http://www. vietnamwar. com/politicalprotests. htm.

Solving The Physics Of The Problem - 1393 Words

As the name suggests, there are no basic guidelines for these algorithms, hence it is unsupervised. These algorithms can be used to discover various pattern, divide the data into various clusters, reducing the dimensionality of the dataset for viewing, which may help researchers in better understanding of the physics of the problem. Here, an expert needs to be careful while choosing a certain algorithm and associated parameters for a specific case. Additionally, an expert needs to be very careful while interpreting the findings from these algorithms. One must use the technical aspects regarding the basic physics of the problem so that their results are meaningful and for it to be accepted by the materials research specialists for†¦show more content†¦The final result is a tree like structure referred as Dendrogram, which shows the way the clusters are related. User can specify a distance or number of clusters to view the dataset in disjoint groups. In this way, the user can get rid of a cluster that does not serve any purpose as per his expertise. In this case, we used MVA (Multivariate data analysis) node in optimization package: modeFRONTIER (ESTECO, 2015) and other statistical software IBM SPSS (IBMSPSS, 2015) for HCA analysis. Clusters are classified by following measures (ESTECO, 2015) 1. Internal similarity (ISim): It reflects the compactness of the k-th cluster. It must be higher. 2. External similarity (ESim): It reflects the uniqueness of the k - th cluster. It must be lower. 3. Descriptive variables: are the most significant variables that help in identifying cluster elements that are similar to one another. 4. Discriminating variables: are the most significant variables that help in identifying cluster elements that are dissimilar to other clusters. HCA analysis can be used to cross check the findings of SVR analysis mentioned above in the text. 4.3.2 Principal Component Analysis (PCA) Principal component analysis can be classified as an unsupervised learning machine-learning algorithm [Mueller et~al., 2015]. It was performed in order to determine correlations

Pre-Implantation Genetic Diagnosis Essay - 2142 Words

Pre-Implantation Genetic Diagnosis Please make sure that our little one has blond hair and blue eyes, and I want him to be a good athlete and very intellectual. Oh, and doc, make him disease free please. Is that all? You two aren’t very particular are you? This will be an easy case. We will continue with the implantation in two days. With the enormous advancement of Technology in many areas of Genetic Diagnosis, parents and doctors seem to defy Mother Nature and maybe even God every day. An example of this phenomenon is Pre-Implantation Genetic Diagnosis. Do the advantages this technology brings outweigh the disadvantages? Who should be final authority? Will the advancement of†¦show more content†¦The procedure is repeated for each blastomere and the disorder-free cells are returned to the blastocyst for further incubation and later implanted into the mother.3 Micromanipulation mimics the purpose of other genetic diagnosis approaches like amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling.5,4 In these procedures a sample of the amniotic fluid and/or the placenta are taken during pregnancy for genetic diagnosis. If signs of genetic abnormality exist, pregnancy might be and usually is terminated. What types of genetic abnormalities can PID screen for? First of all, only high-risk cases are tested, meaning either one (25 percent risk) or both parents (50 percent risk) is/are known carriers or persons with the disease. Furthermore, conditions must be pre-confirmed and studied before the procedure can be done because there is such a little amount of sample (cells) test. Therefore, there is a limitation on the capability of the procedure to effectively weed out genetic irregularity.3 The following genetic disorders may now be prevented using the PID method: Alzheimer disease (AAP) Cystic Fibrosis Fanconi Anemia Hemophilia Muscular Dystrophy Neurofibromatosis Type I p 53 Cancers Sickle Cell disease Spinal Muscular trophy Tay Sachs Disease Exactly how successful is the PID technique? The first PID baby was born in London in 1989.5 However, in the United States the PID technique is virtually infantile. OnlyShow MoreRelatedVitro And Pre Implantation Genetic Diagnosis2610 Words   |  11 Pagesand pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) can both be used when there is difficulty for a couple to naturally conceive on their own. IVF is defined as a series of procedures used to treat fertility or genetic problems and assist with the conception of a child. During IVF, mature eggs are collected from your ovaries and fertilized by sperm in a lab. IVF is the most effective assisted form of reproduction. PGD is defined as the testing of pre-implantation stage embryos or oocytes for genetic defectsRead MoreArgumentative +/- Pre-Implantation Genetic Diagnosis1001 Words   |  5 Pagesthat you re having trouble conceiving because of a genetic abnormality you never even knew you had. Your mind races and your heart sinks. How is this possible? You never thought you would have to deal with not being able to have a baby one day. There are several options you have to try and conceive without passing on the genetic abnormalityÂ… the doctor continues to explain, but the one I would recommend first is Pre Implantation Genetic Diagnosis. You and your wife finally decide on PGD, a typeRead MoreEmbryos : Pre-Implantation Genetic Diagnosis?1121 Words   |  5 PagesWhat PGD is: Pre-Implantation Genetic Diagnosis is a procedure used before implantation to identify genetic defects within embryos. It is used to prevent certain genetic diseases or disorders from being passed on to the child by detecting irregularities in the number or structure of embryo chromosomes. The embryos used in the process are generally created through in vitro fertilisation and PGD is used with an IVF cycle to increase the potential for a successful pregnancy and delivery. PGD refersRead MorePgd : Pre Implantation Genetic Diagnosis2264 Wo rds   |  10 PagesPGD – Pre-implantation Genetic Diagnosis. IVF is known as in vitro fertilisation. This procedure is done by removing an egg from a female, and a sperm cell from the male and combining the egg and sperm in a test tube. These two then form together and create a zygote, which then begins separating into and forming an embryo . Pre-implantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD). It is known as the pre testing of pre-implanted embryos for genetic disorders. This operation has been put into place for couples whoseRead MoreIvf And Pre Implantation Genetic Diagnosis2484 Words   |  10 PagesThe use of IVF and Pre-implantation Genetic Diagnosis In many cases natural conception, where the sperm from the male meets the matured female egg fails to work – the female does not get pregnant. Often after multiple failed attempts In-virto (IVF) is a viable option in order for a successful pregnancy to take place. The process of IVF involves an egg or multiple eggs from the woman’s ovaries and then fertilised by their male partners sperm in a laboratory. The fertilised egg, which should now haveRead MoreVitro And Pre Implantation Genetic Diagnosis1478 Words   |  6 Pagesfertilization (IVF) and pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) can both be used when there is difficulty for a couple to naturally conceive on their own. 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PGD is used after two failed cycles of IVF, in which the egg and the spermRead MoreA Short Note On Pre Implantation Genetic Diagnosis1304 Words   |  6 PagesERT – PRE-IMPLANTATION GENETIC DIAGNOSIS Cystic Fibrosis: Pre-implantation Genetic Diagnosis (or PGD as it is more commonly called) is majorly used to test for 2 things; specifically known genetic conditions, and chromosomal abnormality. Ultimately it allows only normal cells, which are cells unaffected by the disorder it is testing for, to be selected and used for the IVF process. PGD is popularly used as it maximizes the chance of having a healthy baby which is a big health concern of potentialRead MoreUse Of Ivf And Pre Implantation Genetic Diagnosis ( Pgd )1652 Words   |  7 PagesThe use of IVF and Pre-Implantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD) 1. Pre-Implantation Genetic Diagnosis, or PGD, is a procedure that people can go through to avoid passing down inheritable conditions that can have dangerous long-term effects on their children. It involves screening the mother’s embryos by In-vitro Fertilisation (IVF) for mutations, and selecting healthy embryos for further treatment. This can ‘increase the chance of a genetically normal pregnancy and the chance of having a healthy babyRead MorePgd Is Known As Pre Implantation Genetic Diagnosis2465 Words   |  10 PagesPGD is known as pre-implantation genetic diagnosis. â€Å"It is a procedure involving the removal of one or two cells from an embryo and subsequent genetic testing of these cells for specific genetic conditions or chromosomal disorders. PGD involves having an IVF treatment. During the IVF cycle, one or more cells are removed from each embryo in a procedure called embryo biopsy, which typically happens on day 3 or 5 after egg collection. The biopsied ce lls are the transported to a genetic testing laboratory

The Emergency Department Of A County Hospital - 1083 Words

A sedated 72-year old male was admitted to the emergency department of a county hospital. The patient was complaining of chest pain and shortness of breath. This patient has a history of COPD, type-two diabetes and has quit smoking for nearly seven years. In the emergency department, the patient had labored breathing and a SpO2 of 72% on room air. This patient was then placed on BiPAP. His weight is 117kg and temperature of 99.1. Blood pressure was 61/41 on arrival to the emergency department and the patient was tachycardic with a heart rate of 145bpm. An EKG showed the patient was in atrial fibrillation with rapid ventricular response. IV fluids were given in the right antecubital and norepinephrine was administered. While the patient was on BiPAP with 100% FiO2, he had a SpO2 reading of 80%. The doctor decided to intubate the patient with an oral endotracheal tube size nine. Prior to the procedure the patient was sedated with fentanyl. The patient was put on PRVC with 100% FiO2. A chest x-ray showed that the endotracheal tube was in the correct placement and had a prominent ill-defined rounded opacity overlying the left mid lung with additional patchy airspace disease involving the remainder of the left lung. On auscultation, there were scattered crackles and rhonchi on the left side and the right side was diminished. A complete blood count was ordered on this patient and the results showed increased white blood cells at 26.2 and an increased glucose 194, BUN 82, andShow MoreRelatedThe Harris Health System : An Provision Of High Quality Healthcare At The Residents Of Harris County972 Words   |  4 PagesHarris county health district, as well as to the provision of high-quality healthcare to the residents of Harris County. The Harris County emergency department provides emergency health care to patients with or without medical insurance. 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Silence Is Face Saved or Lost †an Cultural Study of Politeness Free Essays

Abstract The present paper focuses on silence; it is mainly dedicated to theory exploration. It firstly reviews major views of the notion of silence, namely its various norms and functions. Then it illustrates silence with examples as a polite means during conversations. We will write a custom essay sample on Silence: Is Face Saved or Lost – an Cultural Study of Politeness or any similar topic only for you Order Now Finally it summarizes that silence, as a nonverbal language, bears as many functions as speech, and sometimes it may bring about special results. Introduction When communication comes into question, in its broadest sense, two aspects catch most researchers’ eyes—speech and silence. Speech is a quite familiar subject, as when referred, communication is often specified on speech, while silence is more often than not a phenomenon which is out of awareness. As regards its strategies, communication can roughly fall into two parts—directness and indirectness, that is, the speaker can express something directly or indirectly. And to communicate successfully, we depend on both of the strategies and both of the tools, i. e. speech and silence. 2. Silence and Politeness 1. The Notion of Silence Silence has traditionally been regarded as delimiting the beginning and end of utterances, or taken simply for inaction in communicative settings, or as most researchers have defined, treated as merely background. As a matter of fact, silence plays a central importance in communicative settings. The appropriate understanding of the notion of silence can be achieved by the understanding of its various forms and functions. 2. 1. 1 Its Various Forms Silence takes various forms. The smallest unit of silence is the normally unnoticed cessation of sound in the production of consonants, which creates the pattern of consonants and vowels that makes â€Å"speech† of a vocal stream. Pausing follows and sometimes is perceived as hesitation and sometimes not perceived at all, within the stream of speech making up a speaker’s turn, and between speaker turns. The next level of silence includes pauses that are perceived in interaction such as lulls in conversation. Longer than this is the complete silence of one party to a conversation. The broadest level of silence is that which provides the structure and background against which talk is marked and meaningful merely by virtue of its occurrence. (Tannen and Saville-Troike, 1985). 2. 1. 2 Its Functions Owing to varying levels, silence bears a range of functions. At one pole are the functions of pausing in cognitive processes, impression formation, and as part of communicative style partly responsible for cultural stereotyping. At the other pole are the functions of silence as the background against which talk has meaning, or as the nonverbal activity which structures interaction. This article mainly focus on silence itself as a communicative device in interaction; either obstructer or facilitator of divine inspiration, and a means of emotion management and display. Many researchers have discussed certain functions of silence: Bruneau (1973) has dealt with â€Å"interactive silences†, which include a broad array of functions, from defining the role of auditor in a communicative exchange, to providing social control, to demonstrating difference, to indicating emotional closeness, to managing personal interaction; Jensen (1973) has also categorizing its various functions as linkage, affection, revelation, judgment, and activation. 2. Silence and Politeness Silence, to some extent, is the extreme manifestation of indirectness. If indirectness is a matter of saying one thing and meaning another, silence can be a matter of saying nothing and meaning something. 1. Face-Saving View and Politeness In communication, people often mind their face, or to say, maintain their personal image. In their face-saving view, Brown and Levinson (1978) categorize face into â€Å"positive face† and â€Å"negative face†, define negative face (NF) as â€Å"basic claim to territories, personal preserves, rights to non-distraction—i. e. freedom of action and freedom from imposition†. Positive face (PF) refers to â€Å"the positive self-image that people have and want to be appreciated and approved of by at least some people†. The two complementary sides of face have been referred to as â€Å"distance vs. involvement†, â€Å"deference vs. solidarity†, and â€Å"autonomy vs. connectional face†. Politeness is activity serving to enhance, maintain or protect face. It consists in people’s rational interaction, preserving both sides of face for each other in intrinsically face-threatening acts (FTAs) by exercising various strategies. 2. Silence as a Polite Means As the extreme manifestation of indirectness, silence has two conflicting yet simultaneous views of silence: one positive, and one negative. The positive and negative valuation of silence is a facet of the inherent ambiguity of silence as a symbol. The ambiguity of silence can be seen to arise either from what is assumed to be evidenced or from what is assumed to be omitted. So silence is probably the most ambiguous of all linguistic forms. 2. 2. 2. 1 The Role in Communication Silence does both good and bad in communication. On the one hand, it is useful when one wants to be indirect or to be polite by leaving options. Silence gives the hearer time to think of a response to what has been said before, and it can be used as a conflict—avoidance strategy. It is easier to undo silence than it is to undo words. For example: A: We’ve received word that four Tanzanian acquaintances from out of town will be arriving tomorrow. But, with our large family, we have no room to accommodate them. (Implied request: â€Å"Would you help us out? ) B: [Silence; not accompanied by any distinctive gesture or facial expression] (Denial: â€Å"I don’t want to† or â€Å"I don’t have any room either†) A: What do you think? B: Yes, that is a problem. Were you able to finish that report we were working on this morning? The negative response in the cultural milieu in which this took place violated A’s expectation that guests would be welcomed, and frustrated his goal in initiating the conversation (Tannen and Saville-Troike, 1985). Another example follows: A: Please marry me. B: [Silence; head and eyes lowered] (Acceptance) The exchange occurred between Japanese speakers. For the girl (B) to say anything would have been considered very inappropriate in this very emotional situation (Tannen and Saville-Troike, 1985). If it had occurred between Igbo speakers, silence would be interpreted as denial if she continued to stand there and as acceptance if she ran away. A: Are you still mad at me? B: [Silence] (Affirmative) It is noteworthy that the silence here conveys a message precisely because it forms part of an interactional communicative structure. It does not deny or terminate the interaction which would require some other act, and so cooperatively invites interpretation. In each of these exchanges, speaker B selected silence from the possible repertoire of response forms available to convey his or her intended meaning. In a word, silence can be the positive means to prevent from employing some determinate expression, considering the place of silence in relation to other communicative structures. On the other hand, one’s failure to say something that is expected in a given moment by the other party can be interpreted as a sign of hostility or dumbness. . 2. 2. 2 Silence, Face-Saving View and Politeness Silence is seen as positive when taken as evidence of the existence of something positive underlying—for example, proper respect; the silence of the telephone when it represents solitude for creative work; the silence of, as the phrase expresses, â€Å"sweet silent thought†; and the silence of perfect rapport between intimates who do not have to exchange words. But silence is also seen as positive if assumed to represent the omission of something negative—â€Å"If you can’t say something nice, don’t say anything†. Silence becomes a bad thing if it seems to represent the existence of something negative—the silence of seething anger. But it is also negatively valued if it is assumed to represent the omission of something positive—the silence of the telephone when you are anxiously awaiting a particular telephone call; the omission of a greeting which constitutes being snubbed; inaction because appropriate action is not being taken. Hence, silence can be valued to have two benefits in rapport and defensiveness (Tannen and Saville-Troike, 1985). The rapport benefit comes from being understood without putting one’s meaning on record, so that understanding is seen not as the result of putting meaning into words—which presumably could be achieved with any two people who speak the same language—but rather as the greater understanding of shared perspective, experience and intimacy, the deeper sense of speaking the same language. This is the positive value of silence stemming from the existence of something positive underlying. The defensive value of silence comes from omitting to say something negative—not confronting potentially divisive information, or being able later to deny having meant what may not be received well. These two benefits can also be interpreted as connection and independence, the two overriding goals of human communication. The two goals can be referred to as the needs for deference or distance on the one hand and camaraderie on the other; or as positive face—the need to be approved of by others, and negative face—the need not to be imposed on by others. Ways of serving these needs, then, are positive and negative politeness. As is known, negative and positive politeness results from the paradoxical nature of interpersonal rapport. Connection is to be sought, because people need to be involved with others. But it is also to be avoided, as a threat to the integrity of the individual. The two benefits of silence determine that silence has a positive value as a way of serving negative politeness—not imposing on others. But silence can also have a negative value when it is seen as the failure of positive politeness—the need to be involved with others. Nonetheless silence can be seen as positive or negative by members of any culture, as it is measured against what is expected in that context. Then it may be interpreted as the observance of positive face or the observance of negative face. 3. Summary When speech is interpreted, it is not merely accounting for what can be said, but what can be said when, where, by whom, to whom, in what manner, and in what particular circumstances. It follows naturally that this line of inquiry must consider also who may not speak about what and in what situations, as well. Silence, as a nonverbal language, bears as many functions as speech, and sometimes it may bring about special results. It is not as simple as most people think. In different contexts, it can be interpreted as different meanings. Pragmatically speaking, this paper simply touches the notion of silence, and relates it with face-saving view and politeness. Silence may convey many underlying meanings in communicative settings. People resort to silence from the possible repertoire of response forms available to convey his or her intended meaning in order not to threaten others’ face for polite reason. How to cite Silence: Is Face Saved or Lost – an Cultural Study of Politeness, Papers